Emily Rollins – Indonesia | Department of Linguistics

Unity or Inequality? The Language Dilemma in Indonesia Language policy looks at how governments and institutions decide which languages are used in places like schools, workplaces, and government, and how those choices impact people’s access to opportunities. These decisions become especially complex in countries with high levels of linguistic diversity, where language can both unite and divide. Indonesia is known for its linguistic diversity, with over 400 languages spoken across its many islands.The country’s geography plays a big role in this. Many people grow up on islands where they are primarily exposed to a local language. The Indonesian government feared that this diversity would result in ethnic division within a country that is already geographically divided, so to combat this issue, they declared a national language of Bahasa Indonesia.
 

At first glance, this seems like a good idea. However, conforming to a national language can be repressive for minority language speakers and create linguistic barriers and hierarchies within the country. This issue especially manifests itself within education. Indonesia’s laws allow schools with students who are primarily from minority languages to speak the local language for the first three years of school; however, after that, education in the local language is required to stop, and Bahasa Indonesia becomes the only language of instruction.
 

This abrupt transition creates a major barrier for students who speak minority languages. By the fourth year in school, some children may walk into class and not understand the language their teacher is speaking. Indonesia’s literacy rate is around 98%. However, there are still substantial deficits in rural areas. This issue is particularly severe in rural areas, where students may not be exposed to Bahasa at all before starting school. In many cases, place of birth and the socioeconomic status of the family can determine one’s access to education. This has led to lower literacy rates in economically disadvantaged areas (see Figure 1).
 

Figure 1
Positive correlation between adult literacy rate and per capita expenditure among Indonesian
provinces

In addition, gender disparities also contribute to illiteracy in Indonesia. In some small villages, young girls are expected to do household chores while boys attend school. This has historically led to lower literacy rates among women, as shown in literacy data from the late 1990s and early 2000s (see Figure 2).
 

Figure 2
Illiteracy rates among population aged 10 and above by gender

However, the challenge doesn’t stop there; learning Bahasa Indonesia isn’t even the finish line anymore. English is becoming increasingly valued by the government and parents. In 2014, an Indonesian minister stated that the country would fall behind economically if English education did not improve. However, implementing English into schools has been challenging. Indonesia’s already complex linguistic landscape made it difficult to balance English instruction with Bahasa Indonesia and other local languages. Additionally, many teachers were not qualified to teach English, and some did not have sufficient proficiency in English to teach effectively.
 

In the bigger picture, the inequality doesn’t stop at education. Language shapes access to jobs, healthcare, and even political participation. Many government positions require fluency in Bahasa Indonesia, and often English too, which means speakers of minority languages are less likely to have a voice in decision-making spaces. The same issue shows up in healthcare. If translation services aren’t available, language barriers can make it harder for people to get the care they need.

What makes this situation complicated is that Indonesia doesn’t explicitly ban minority languages. People are free to speak their local languages in their communities, and many do. But when those languages aren’t used in schools, government, or other powerful institutions, they become less useful in those spaces. Over time, this can pressure people to shift toward the dominant language to access better opportunities, and that shift often carries over to the next generation. This is how languages gradually lose status, and sometimes disappear across generations, without ever being legally banned.

This puts Indonesia in a difficult situation. On one hand, Bahasa Indonesia promotes national unity in a country with immense diversity. English provides economic gains and allows Indonesians to participate globally. Also, minority languages hold culture and tradition; simply tolerating them without promoting them can be exclusive and create further disparity, while also leading to loss of cultural knowledge and tradition.

One possibility is stronger bilingual education programs that extend beyond the first few years of school. This would allow students to build literacy in both their home language and the national language, rather than being forced to transition too quickly. Increased investment in teacher training and resources for multilingual classrooms could also help bridge the gaps between rural vs. urban schools and wealthier vs. less affluent areas.

This specific scenario highlights an important idea, which is applicable even outside of Indonesia’s linguistic environment: language policy is never just about language; it holds weight in national identity, unity, power, and who has access to opportunity